This blog draws substantially from the recent open-access article School Testing Culture and Teacher Satisfaction by William C. Smith & Jessica Holloway, published in Educational Assessment, Evaluation, and Accountability.

In many parts of the world, teachers are held responsible for their students’ test scores. Why does this practice harm teacher morale to such an extent? New research suggests that the answer lies partly in the way test scores are used in teacher appraisals – and points to the dangers of this pervasive practice.

Teachers are subject to increased scrutiny and often the first to be blamed for educational shortcomings. Testing for accountability, where educators are held accountable for student test scores, has spread from the United States and the United Kingdom around the globe. In Portugal and Chile, for example, teachers’ salaries are linked to test scores.

Past research highlights that such practices are harmful to teacher satisfaction. High-stakes, test-based accountability has decreased teacher morale, as well as increased work-related pressure and personal stress. In the United Kingdom, for example, teachers in high-stakes environments have described their disappointment when they realize “the reality of teaching being worse than expected, and the nature (rather than the quantity) of the workload”.

How do such systems lead to teacher dissatisfaction? The way teacher appraisals are used and communicated can help explain the relationship. Teacher appraisals, and the feedback teachers receive from such evaluations, are an important part of that environment and can influence how teachers feel about themselves and their work. Nearly all teachers across 33 countries reported teaching in systems where student tests scores were used in their appraisals as part of a high stakes decision.

The increased use of high-stakes testing to hold teachers accountable reflects what some have called a global testing culture. In a testing culture, student test scores are understood to accurately represent student learning and teachers are expected to do everything in their power to improve test scores for their students and school. Those that fail to fall in line with such a culture can be stigmatized for not being a team player or blamed for not sufficiently preparing students for tests.

Data from 33 countries that participated in the OECD’s 2013 Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) sheds light on the direct and indirect influence of school testing culture on teacher satisfaction.

There is strong evidence that school testing cultures directly damage teacher satisfaction. They can also cause damage indirectly through the appraisals that teachers receive from principals. How test scores are emphasized in appraisals and the perceived utility of appraisal feedback can shape teachers’ responses to such feedback.

Working within a school testing culture appears to be the norm for most teachers: 97% work under a teacher appraisal system that is based, at least in part, on student test scores. The majority work for a principal who reports taking clear action so that teachers know they are responsible for their students’ outcomes.

More intense school testing cultures weaken potential benefits of teacher appraisals by increasing the emphasis on test scores in appraisal feedback. This not only leads teachers to see the feedback as less useful but also causes such feedback to lower teacher satisfaction.

In combination, the direct and indirect influences of the school testing culture considerably reduce teachers’ satisfaction. Statistically, the effect can be seen with teachers who work in a school that uses student test scores as part of teacher appraisals and whose principals very often take action to ensure teachers know they are responsible for student outcomes. These teachers report satisfaction levels 0.35 standard deviations lower than those of teachers where student test scores are not incorporated in appraisals and principals never or rarely take action.

Teacher appraisals do not in themselves harm teacher satisfaction. Instead, it is the “pervasiveness of the testing culture, and the overemphasis on student test scores in teacher appraisals that have a profoundly negative effect on teachers and their practice”. School leaders and policymakers must carefully consider how the use of student test scores as an accountability practice shapes the wellbeing of teachers – the people most essential in delivering education.

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Author Bio:

William C. Smith is a Senior Lecturer in Education and International Development and Academic Lead for the Data for Children Collaborative with UNICEF at the University of Edinburgh. Prior to his position at the University of Edinburgh, he worked as a Senior Policy Analyst at UNESCO’s Global Education Monitoring Report. William’s research focuses on barriers to education for the most marginalized, including how student test scores have shaped educational policy, perspectives, and practice.

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Photo credit: Avel Chuklanov/Unsplash

The value of teachers was thrown into the spotlight this year. From the United Kingdom to Mexico, teachers have responded to 2020’s COVID-19 crisis by (often quite literally) going the extra mile. However, though the pandemic has shown us teachers’ strengths, it has also exposed weaknesses in the education systems that support them. This is why we’re taking stock of all the lessons of 2020 and using them as the foundation of the 6 key points in the "Call for Action" that will help us better support teachers in 2021.

1. Preserve employment and wages

COVID-19 shutdowns and restrictions have led to real economic hardship. In education, this has particularly wounded teachers on temporary contracts, who can’t rely on a guaranteed income. The temptation for governments is to save by cutting teachers’ salaries. This is the last thing they should do. As we investigated earlier this year, good salaries help attract the very best recruits, keep experienced teachers in the profession, and encourage societies to see the true worth of teaching. Some countries recognise this and have already taken action: in October, Nigeria’s President Buhari acted to ‘revitalise and reposition’ the teaching profession with a surprise salary increase.

It’s time to pay teachers what they deserve. Here’s how a salary increase can improve education for everyone involved.#LearningNeverStops #SupportTeachers @IIEP_UNESCO @OECDEduSkills https://t.co/Bd96L7WoKf pic.twitter.com/bCmZnN5X5N

— Teacher Task Force (@TeachersFor2030) November 6, 2020

2. Prioritise teachers’ and learners’ health, safety and well-being

The move to remote learning hasn’t shielded all teachers from harm. Many are still travelling to meet students without internet access and those who find it difficult to learn without close support. These changes can come at a cost to their mental and physical health. Some countries are providing teachers with psycho-social support during this crisis, for instance in Côte d’Ivoire, where the Education Ministry is helping to prepare teachers for their return to classrooms. 

There are several simple things education authorities can do to lessen the pressure on teachers: streamline the admin they have to complete; allow more flexibility in student assessment; create peer support groups. But above all, they must simply begin by recognising the extreme stress their teachers are under. Watch this video to learn more:

Teachers have a right to decent working conditions which is why we need to #SupportTeachers and their mental health. https://t.co/0FakkpyTU1 pic.twitter.com/REMh9oUE3N

— Teacher Task Force (@TeachersFor2030) November 4, 2020

Tragically, COVID-19 isn’t the only threat teachers have faced this year. TFF has covered the violence faced by many teachers, schools and pupils; from Paris to Kabul, many teachers live and work under the constant threat of attack.The recent kidnapping of 300 Nigerian schoolboys by Boko Haram demonstrates the persistence of this threat, and it shows no signs of abating. 

So although the prospect of a COVID-19 vaccine promises to protect teachers from the enemy we can’t see, more must be done to protect them from the enemy we can.

3. Include teachers in developing COVID-19 education responses

As they’ve shown repeatedly this year, teachers know their schools and students better than anyone. They have shown leadership and deserve to have their voices heard. That’s why we joined with partners to support social dialogue between governments and teacher unions in a selection of African Countries – one of many discussions we held around the world to mark World Teachers’ Day. Together, we committed to a set of principles that would ensure that future education planning is collaborative, consensual, and geared towards the equitable provision of quality education.

4. Provide adequate professional support and training

Barbados has been training teachers in the ICT skills they need to create engaging online lessons. To inspire other countries to support their teachers in adapting to the new COVID-19 reality, we created this back-to-school toolkit for school leaders and this guide for policy-makers to ensure that teachers are supported as schools reopen safely.

These documents, and other useful materials, can now be found in our Knowledge Hub. 

Teacher development should be at the heart of efforts to meet @UN SDG 4 ‘quality education’.

That’s why we’ve built the TTF Knowledge Platform. https://t.co/FN0oq9NxAq pic.twitter.com/F16SbwfVb5

— Teacher Task Force (@TeachersFor2030) October 5, 2020

It’s not just the challenges of COVID-19 that teachers need support and training to overcome. There is also a need for general training on issues like inclusivity. Take a look at this video for more information:

Every child has the right to quality education and every teacher has the right to quality training ? That's why we’ve joined with @GEMReport to call for inclusion to be at the heart of teacher development.#SupportTeachers #AllmeansAll https://t.co/1ZjvlqX76A pic.twitter.com/8hmFe60Nvs

— Teacher Task Force (@TeachersFor2030) December 9, 2020

5. Put equity at the heart of education responses

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the worst inequalities in our social systems, injustices that were here before COVID-19. On top of the various aforementioned investments, there are two ways in which we can move towards equity in education right now: focusing on reducing the digital divide and providing more support and encouragement to female teachers. 

The efforts of countries like China are encouraging. The nation has worked to ensure that children in rural areas have adequate internet access while studying remotely, so that they don’t fall behind peers from urban areas. We look forward to other countries leading similar initiatives in 2021.

6. Include teachers in aid responses

In many of the world’s poorer countries, funding is urgently needed to ensure that there are enough resources available (digital or otherwise) for teachers to keep themselves and their students learning. Over the next few years, the students who will ultimately benefit from this aid will be the backbone of their nations’ economic and social recoveries. Put simply, this would be money well spent.

Next year, the Teacher Task Force will be calling on all partners to invest in teachers.

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Photo credit: Phil Roeder/Flickr

A global consultation meeting tackles the theme of the forthcoming 2021/2 Global Education Monitoring Report.

Around the world, education is provided not only by governments but also by local associations, non-government organizations, religious bodies, private enterprise and other “non-state actors”. How do these groups affect access to education, quality of provision and teaching and learning conditions? Moreover, how well do governments regulate non-state actors?

These questions will be at the heart of the next edition of the international community’s major annual education report, the Global Education Monitoring (GEM) Report. Teachers and teaching are central to the report’s theme, so the International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030 hosted an online consultation meeting on 30 November 2020 to discuss the theme, in collaboration with the GEM Report team and Education International.

Eighty-six people joined the meeting, including teachers, school leaders and representatives of teacher unions and international and regional organisations, working to support teacher policy development. The meeting was chaired by Borhene Chakroun, Director, Division for Policies and Lifelong Learning Systems, UNESCO, and Dennis Sinyolo, Senior Coordinator, Education International.

Borhene Chakroun highlighted the influence of non-state actors in the teaching profession and the way COVID-19 had demonstrated the importance of involving teachers in the policy process. Dennis Sinyolo welcomed the 2021/22 GEM Report on non-state actors as an opportunity to reaffirm the critical role of teachers and their representatives. He also underlined that education is a fundamental right and that non-state actors should contribute to strengthening and complementing public education systems, but not to replace them.

Every year the GEM Report assesses the world’s progress towards achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 (“Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”) as well as its related targets and the Education 2030 Agenda more broadly.

The Teacher Task Force consultation meeting broke into four in-depth group discussions that reflected the types of non-state education activity that the 2021 GEM Report will be examining: working conditions in non-state schools; governance and regulations; influence (social dialogue and education technology); and teacher professional development.

Working conditions in non-state schools: Mind the gap

The session on working conditions in non-state schools looked at questions such as: What working conditions and salary levels are offered to teachers in private and community schools run by non-state actors?  How are private sector innovations such as mobile payments improving or worsening working conditions?

Participants highlighted the gaps between state and non-state schools in terms of salaries and other contractual benefits. In Uganda, for example, private school teachers are paid 40% less than public school teachers. Differences in workload (class size, additional support), working environment (school infrastructure, materials, autonomy, support, access to technology) and working conditions were also mentioned.

There was agreement that COVID-19 had exacerbated existing challenges – in Italy, for example, some teachers lost 40% of their income due to the pandemic – and that there is a need to provide abundant support to all teachers, to ensure they are qualified and motivated in their work. The session recommended that teachers and head teachers receive better support; that regulations exist to ensure health and safety at school that the fundamental right to education is protected.

Governance, regulations and private tutoring: A need for monitoring

The discussion on governance, regulations and private supplementary tutoring weighed questions such as: How do governments regulate the qualification and certification of teachers to ensure the quality of education in non-state schools?  How does this affect teacher recruitment? What are the implications for the growth of private tutoring conducted by teachers and other actors?

One key question was if government regulations and accountability mechanisms for the teaching profession within the non-state education sector are achieving their aim. The group agreed that there are not enough monitoring mechanisms to verify how teachers are protected, and this should be a key responsibility of governments. Many teachers in private schools were greatly affected during the COVID-19 pandemic as private schools are not regulated by state actors and often stopped payment of salaries.

Weighing the influence of social dialogue and education technology

The discussion on the influence on education of unions and other non-state groups examined questions such as: How do education unions contribute to the achievement of SDG 4? What is the influence on education policy of non-state actors, the private sector, development agencies and education technology?

Non-state groups have brought many innovative approaches to schools, especially during the COVID-19 crisis. But there is a risk that these approaches may become long-term after the crisis without having been negotiated as part of formal curriculum reform. Teachers’ role in implementing innovations is critical, as they have important experience of what happens when policy is implemented.

Education technology has been essential during lockdowns. Education technology facilitates 1-to-1 interaction and there are many advantages of online collaboration spaces. If access to technology is limited, however, gaps in equality can widen. In addition, technology has upset the work-life balance for teachers, sometimes requiring them to be available 24/7 and doubling their workload, online and on paper. Teachers need support and training on how to be leaders online.

COVID-19 has shown the importance of involving teachers and unions in policy dialogue. Many consultations and collaborative work have been established through webinars. For example, Zambia has worked with the teachers’ union to help improve the conditions of service for teachers in private schools. Private school teachers which are not covered by main public sector unions have made attempts to reinforce their position by developing private sector teachers’ unions including in Togo (i.e. SYNEP-Togo).

The session recommended that policy be contextualized, not only on a country level but also more locally, even at school level; that public universities and public actors participate in the design of technology platforms; that governments create mechanisms to enhance dialogue between all stakeholders, promote online consultation with non-state actor and involve teachers’ unions in conversations with ministries.

Teachers’ professional development: sharing opportunities

The session on teachers’ professional development looked at the role of private non-state actors in pre-service teacher training and continuous professional development. Certification standards, effectiveness of training, monitoring and teachers’ qualifications all came under scrutiny, along with whether COVID-19 has changed the role of non-state actors in teacher training.

The group examined the roles of non-state actors in providing initial and in-service teacher training, including research, funding solutions, provision of experts, delivery of training methods and materials, and targeted teacher professional development based on specialized areas.

Participants called on the GEM Report to look at how fairly professional development opportunities were distributed among teachers in urban and rural areas, and rich and poor neighborhoods. It was emphasized that teacher education is the role of the state and that non-state actors can fill the gaps left by state actors cooperatively but not competitively.

It was noted that COVID-19 gave non-state actors an opportunity to respond to the needs of teachers and learners in different areas, including as teacher trainers. In many cases this transformation has empowered teachers with online teaching techniques and strategies, as the representative from the Ministry of Education of Jamaica highlighted. This impact was felt mainly in well-resourced urban areas, however, leaving rural and poor areas behind. Since equity concerns are universal, this remains an issue not just for the global south but also for high-income countries. Furthermore, beyond a profit orientation, private sector educational technology may also shape the type of learning that is valued and thus narrow pedagogy, ignoring the social aspects of teaching and learning.

The session recommended that the GEM report should examine the role of non-state actors in enhancing standards of quality for both pre-service teacher education and in-service training within a common framework, while also introducing flexible approaches. Moreover, the report should address how continuous professional development and training should be connected to the new skills required in remote and distance teaching; and that teachers with ICT skills be encouraged to mentor other teachers. Additionally, the growth of shadow tutoring system during COVID-19 was identified as a further area for examination.

All participants in the consultation meeting agreed that equity and inclusion – giving every child, from every background, a fair chance of a quality education – must remain at the heart of the discussion about the role of non-state actors in helping to achieve SDG 4. There was general agreement that the COVID-19 pandemic and measures to contain it had amplified existing challenges and inequalities. For teachers, especially, the greatest effects have been the strain that the pandemic has placed on working conditions and the balance between personal and work life.

Photo image: https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/non-state_actors  with the photo by Hugo Infante.

The age profile of teachers has been in the news in 2020 due to worries about differential COVID-19 risks related to age. Yet for the return to classrooms to be successful, the participation of all teachers is needed to ensure education can continue. 

Given their vulnerability, UNESCO Director-General Audrey Azoulay and Education International’s General Secretary David Edwards, in a joint statement underlined that,

”In this context, as we see positive developments regarding vaccination, we believe that teachers and education support personnel must be considered as a priority group.”

While a country’s balance between older and younger teachers matters for many different reasons, data on teacher age is patchy. The main source is TALIS, the Teaching and Learning International Survey, conducted every five years by the OECD.

The survey covers 48 countries. Teachers’ average age differs widely, from 36 in Turkey to 50 in Georgia. Only Saudi Arabia (5%) has fewer teachers aged over 50 than Turkey (6%). At the other extreme, more than half of teachers are aged over 50 in Lithuania (57%), Estonia (54%), Georgia (53%), Latvia (51%) and Bulgaria (51%).

Teachers by age. Secondary, under 30 years / Secondary, 50 years and over, Percentage, 2018 or latest available

As the chart above shows, Italy and Greece are also among countries where teachers skew older, while in Chile and the United Kingdom they’re younger.

Data from lower-income countries are harder to come by, but a 2006 UNESCO paper found they also show wide differences: half of Kenya’s primary teachers were aged over 50 in 2003, whereas in Niger they were much younger due to a recruitment drive that saw the introduction of many poorly trained contract teachers to meet universal primary education (UPE) goals, and a policy of mandatory retirement after 30 years.

Data on teachers’ experience, which correlates with age, also shows wide gaps. For example, TIMMS – a four-yearly international study – found in 2019 that just 6% of fourth-grade science teachers in Kuwait have over 20 years’ experience, compared to 83% in Lithuania.

Age and experience matter as more experienced teachers are typically paid more. This may incentivise governments to save money by preferring younger teachers – as a report by South Africa’s education department confirmed.

Age profile also affects government planning. A UNESCO paper on pre-primary teaching notes: “countries with large numbers of teachers in their fifties and older need to prepare carefully so that training and recruitment mechanisms are in place to ensure future needs are met”.

Does age matter to outcomes?

The report from South Africa’s education department says cost is not the only reason they prefer to employ younger teachers – they also have more up-to-date training and skills.

On similar lines, a study in Italy found that younger teachers were associated with higher grades, with possible reasons including higher quality of recent training and higher levels of enthusiasm.

On the other hand, analysis by the OECD found that a country’s teacher age profile is not correlated with its students’ performance in PISA assessments. For example, both Singapore and Abu Dhabi have relatively young teachers, yet Singapore scores high educationally while Abu Dhabi does not. High-performing Estonia and lower-performing Bulgaria both have older age profiles.

Likewise, a study in the UK found that “there is no negative link between the age of teachers and educational outcomes”.

However, it makes the point that a balance of old and young is beneficial: “There is also evidence that older teachers add to the overall educational environment through extending the range of experiences, perspectives and knowledge that students can draw upon.”

A columnist in the UK’s Guardian newspaper has the same view: “In a few years’ time, I’ll be a teacher of above average age for England… Yet I feel hopelessly unprepared to become the new ‘old guard’… There is an experience vacuum being created in our schools that robs junior teachers of the role models they need to help them improve.”

Policies to find the right balance

While countries with older teachers need to step up recruitment, those with younger teachers must think about policies to retain existing teachers. Prioritising recruitment over retention risks a high rate of attrition: in the UK almost one in three new teachers leave the profession within five years.

UNESCO’s International Institute for Educational Planning identifies three key policies for teacher recruitment, other than higher salaries: more diverse career opportunities, formalised support networks such as peer learning, and more transparent recruitment processes.

The reasons why teachers leave teaching need more research, according to a UNESCO review in sub-Saharan Africa that found resignation accounts for as many teachers leaving the profession as retirement. A study of Swedish teachers finds “lack of support from administrators, student discipline issues and lack of input and decision-making power” are more important than pay.

OECD analysis of the 2018 TALIS results finds that overall, “education systems will have to renew at least one-third of their teaching workforce in the next 15 years”. 

Available data may paint a convoluted picture, but what is clear is that each country will need to find its own balance between efforts to recruit teachers and efforts to retain them.

Photo: Vicki Francis/Department for International Development

Read the UNESCO/IEA report on TIMSS 2019 in English, French and Spanish. 

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The latest Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) shows that teachers’ qualifications continued to vary substantially between 64 high- and middle-income countries in 2019. In addition, many countries did not ensure that all teachers participated in substantial quantities of in-service training. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has thrown these deficits into sharp relief, emphasizing the crucial role of teachers’ professional development.

Teachers’ qualifications and training feature in a new report by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), in collaboration with UNESCO, which examines TIMSS 2019 data that shed light on countries’ progress towards achieving the fourth Sustainable Development Goal (“Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”). The report includes two key teacher indicators: the proportion of teachers with the minimum required qualifications, by education level (Global Indicator 4.c.1); and the percentage of teachers who received in-service training in the last 12 months by type of training (Thematic Indicator 4.c.7).

Teachers’ initial qualifications vary according to level of education

Although there is no international agreement yet of how to define a teacher that is qualified, teachers at all levels require high standards of initial formal education, including subject-matter knowledge and pedagogical skills to teach. Moreover, it is generally accepted that those teaching science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) subjects at higher levels and grades of education require increasingly expert knowledge and skills (UIS, 2006). Collecting data on the highest level of formal education completed by mathematics and science teachers, data from participating countries show Grade 8 mathematics teachers had higher qualifications on average, with 95% of students being taught by a teacher who had at least a bachelor’s or equivalent degree, compared with 85% of their Grade 4 peers. Some countries demonstrated very large gaps between grades. For example, Italy had the highest percentage of Grade 8 students whose teachers had a postgraduate level qualification (100%), but also the highest percentage of Grade 4 students whose mathematics teachers only had a secondary level qualification (59%). Other large gaps between Grade 8 and 4, such as the percentage of students taught by a mathematics teacher who had at least a bachelor’s degree or equivalent, were observed in the Russian Federation (99% and 75%) and South Africa (79% and 62%).

Countries can reinforce teacher qualifications to support teacher knowledge and skills

Reinforcing formal teaching qualifications by increasing standards or by facilitating current teachers to achieve minimum qualifications can enhance the quality of teaching and learning. As of 2013, Italy requires tertiary-level qualifications to teach primary level mathematics (IEA, 2016). In some middle-income countries, a sizeable share of Grade 4 students also continued to be taught by teachers who only had at most a secondary education qualification, including Albania (19%), Pakistan (36%) and Armenia (40%). In Morocco, high percentages of students were taught by teachers with just secondary level qualifications in Grade 4 (43%) and Grade 8 (34%). Means to facilitate teacher efforts to meet current minimum qualifications include incentive programmes such as financial aid and tuition waivers, flexible schedules and the availability of online education as in Pakistan (ADB, 2019).

Many teachers lack in-service training opportunities

In-service continuing professional development can help teachers achieve higher level qualifications. It also builds their professionalism through the acquisition of new knowledge and skills about pedagogy, ICTs, assessment and other areas. Surveying whether teachers have received in-service training, related TIMSS data are expressed in terms of the percentage of students who are being taught by teachers who had received at least 35 hours of professional development during the two years before the assessment. On average, Grade 8 students (23%) were more than twice as likely as their Grade 4 peers (10%) to have been taught by a teacher who received at least the minimum 35 hours of professional development.

In Croatia, no Grade 4 teachers were reported to have met the threshold for in-service training. Meanwhile, training levels were also very low in countries that generally have a strong reputation for their education system, such as Japan (1% in Grade 4 and 6% in Grade 8) and Finland (2% and 6%). With the rapid shift to remote education at the onset of COVID-19 and the need for distance teaching skills, such a lack of training may not be sustainable. For example, prior to COVID-19, 71% of Grade 8 students across all countries were taught by teachers who indicated a need for future professional development on integrating technology into mathematics instruction. Institutionalized training, in contrast, appears common in Kazakhstan (30% in Grade 4 and 61% in Grade 8) and the Russian Federation (32% and 71%).

Lack of ICTs in schools

With teachers working remotely during school closures and children using available household ICT, the already large digital divide was underlined, especially in middle- and low-income countries where household Internet access is far from ubiquitous. The Teacher Task Force previously estimated that 43% of learners globally lacked household Internet (Teacher Task Force, 2020). TIMSS results demonstrate additional inequities in schools. In Grade 8, across all countries surveyed, there were 2.8 students per computer in urban and 4.1 students per computer in rural schools. Turkey had the highest disparity with a ratio of 3.4 in urban and 10.3 in rural schools, while Lebanon showed a reverse disparity of 8.4 in urban and 5.0 in rural schools.

Policy implications for teachers

Since the TIMSS 2019 data collection started in the first half of 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic, it provides a baseline against which to gauge how changes implemented during and after the pandemic may have affected education and teachers. The rapid transition to distance education has also taught us the need for fresher and more reliable data so policy-makers can make decisions on a real-time basis.

It is critical that governments respond by improving teacher quality. In the medium-term this includes enhancing standards for initial teacher education and continuous professional development to strengthen teacher resilience. In the short term, based on the finding of few in-service training opportunities for teachers, particularly in Grade 4, additional training or a more equitable distribution of resources based on critical needs is required. Digital and remote teaching skills, especially where hybrid learning models are used, are important to reduce students’ learning loss. This is true for high-income countries where in-service training is less common and for middle-income countries, to improve upon teachers’ lower initial qualifications.

Digital divides should also be minimized, ensuring that teachers and students have access to the Internet and a range of technologies, including radio and television, in both urban and rural settings.

Online learning allows for greater anonymity in communication between students and teachers, and among students, which can allow bullying. Better responses to combat cyber-bullying are needed, such as awareness and sensitization campaigns, training for teachers, and mechanisms for handling complaints. According to TIMSS 2019, this need exists for both grades, but perhaps especially for Grade 4 where it is reported more frequently.

COVID-19 could set education back by many years and erase much of the progress of the previous decade. Efforts to achieve SDG4, including Target 4.c, would benefit from richer and more comprehensive data to inform decision-making. Extending TIMSS data collection to additional countries would be a step towards meeting growing needs. Another step could include expanding the set of indicators to include a more comprehensive view of teachers’ context and needs based on all SDG 4.c indicators, including pupil-qualified teacher ratios, teacher salaries relative to similar professions, and teacher attrition.

TIMSS is a large-scale assessment of education achievement with the aim to gain an in-depth understanding of the effects of policies and practices within and across systems of education. Providing internationally comparative data on how students perform in mathematics and science at Grade 4 and Grade 8, the TIMSS 2019 surveys gather information about curriculum, instructional practices and school resources known to be associated with learning and students' achievement. TIMSS 2019 covers 72 educational systems, including 64 high- and middle-income countries and dependent territories, and 8 benchmarking jurisdictions.

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Read the UNESCO/IEA report on TIMSS 2019 in English, French and Spanish. 

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Photo credit: Shutterstock/AVAVA